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MCITP MCSE and CCNA Certification Notes Series :

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Cisco Hierarchical Model:
For more information about this, please read our separate tutorial titled "The Cisco Hierarchical Model".

OSI Model:
The OSI model is a layered model and a conceptual standard used for defining standards to promote multi-vendor integration as well as maintain constant interfaces and isolate changes of implementation to a single layer. It is NOT application or protocol specific. In order to pass any Cisco exam, you need to know the OSI model inside and out.

The OSI Model consists of 7 layers as follows:

Layer	Description	Device	Protocol
Application	Provides network access for applications, flow control and error recovery. Provides communications services to applications by identifying and establishing the availability of other computers as well as to determine if sufficient resources exist for communication purposes.	Gateway	NCP, SMB, SMTP, FTP, SNMP, Telnet, Appletalk
Presentation	Performs protocol conversion, encryption and data compression	Gateway and redirectors	NCP, AFP, TDI
Session	Allows 2 applications to communicate over a network by opening a session and synchronizing the involved computers. Handles connection establishment, data transfer and connection release	Gateway	NetBios
Transport	Repackages messages into smaller formats, provides error free delivery and error handling functions	Gateway	NetBEUI, TCP, SPX, and NWLink
Network	Handles addressing, translates logical addresses and names to physical addresses, routing and traffic management.	Router and brouter	IP, IPX, NWLink, NetBEUI
**Data Link	Packages raw bits into frames making it transmitable across a network link and includes a cyclical redundancy check(CRC). It consists of the LLC sublayer and the MAC sublayer. The MAC sublayer is important to remember, as it is responsible for appending the MAC address of the next hop to the frame header. On the contrary, LLC sublayer uses Destination Service Access Points and Source Service Access Points to create links for the MAC sublayers.	Switch, bridge and brouter	None
Physical	Physical layer works with the physical media for transmitting and receiving data bits via certain encoding schemes. It also includes specifications for certain mechanical connection features, such as the adaptor connector.	Multiplexer and repeater	None

Here is an easy way to memorize the order of the layers:
All People Seem To Need Data Processing. The first letter of each word corresponds to the first letter of one of the layers. It is a little corny, but it works.

Class	Range	Explanation
A	1-126	IP addresses can be class A, B or C. Class A addresses are for networks with a large number of hosts. The first octet is the netid and the 3 remaining octets are the hostid. Class B addresses are used in medium to large networks with the first 2 octets making up the netid and the remaining 2 are the hostid. A class C is for smaller networks with the first 3 octets making up the netid and the last octet comprising the hostid. The later two classes aren’t used for networks.
B	128-191
C	192-223
D	224-239 (Multicasting)
E	240-255 (Experimental)

A subnet mask blocks out a portion of an IP address and is used to differentiate between the hostid and netid. The default subnet masks are as follows:

Class	Default Subnet	# of Subnets	# of Hosts Per Subnet
Class A	255.0.0.0	126	16,777,214
Class B	255.255.0.0	16,384	65,534
Class C	255.255.255.0	2,097,152	254

In these cases, the part of the IP address blocked out by 255 is the Net ID.

3COM’s IP addressing tutorial is just superior. It covers basic IP addressing options as well as subnetting and VLSM/CIDR.

IPX/SPX:
IPX will also be an important issue to consider in network management given the fact there many companies still use Netware servers. There are two parts to every IPX Network address - the Network ID and the Host ID. The first 8 hex digits represent the network ID, while the remaining hex digits represent the host ID, which is most likely the same as the MAC address, meaning we do not need to manually assign node addresses. Note that valid hexadecimal digits range from 0 through 9, and hexadecimal letters range from A through F. FFFFFFFF in hexadecimal notation = 4292967295 in decimal.

Sequenced Packet Exchange(SPX) belongs to the Transport layer, and is connection-oriented. It creates virtual circuits between hosts, and that each host is given a connection ID in the SPX header for identifying the connection. Service Advertisement Protocol(SAP) is used by NetWare servers to advertise network services via broadcast at an interval of every 60 minutes by default.

IP Addressing and Subnet Masking

IP addresses are 32 bits long and are represented as a quad octet set. Each octet represents 1 byte (8 bits) and has a range of 0-255 for 256 values ( 2 ⁸ = 256 ). IP networks are divided into classes, with each class having a network ID and host range. Each class uses bits from the first octet as part of the network ID and depending on the network class can use up to two other octets for the network ID with the remaining octets reserved for hosts on the network. For example, class A networks use the first octet as the network range and the other three octets are for hosts on the networks and class C networks use the first three octets from the left as the network ID, leaving only one octet available for hosts. The Network classes are divided into classes as follows.

IP Address Classes
Class	First Octet's Range Decimal	First Octet's Binary Range	Network Host	Default Subnet Mask
A	0-126	00000000 - 01111110	Network.Host.Host.Host Example 10.128.22.100	255.0.0.0
B	128-191	10000000 - 10111111	Network.Network.Host.Host Example 172.12.15.65	255.255.0.0
C	192-223	11000000 - 11011111	Network.Network.Network.Host Example 209.38.1.2	255.255.255.0
D E	224-239 240-255	11100000 - 11111111	D is for multicast E is experimental	N/A

Some IP addresses are reserved for special use and are not to be used as networks.

Reserved IP Addresses
Address	Use
127.0.0.1	Used for loopback
0.0.0.0	Used as default route on Cisco Equipment
255.255.255.255	Broadcast to all nodes on network

IP Network addressing

A network address uniquely identifies each network.
Every machine on the network shares the same network portion of it's IP address.
The node portion of the IP address uniquely identifies the node on its network, can also be called host address.

Identifying the Parts of IP Network Addresses

This table has one example with the other fields left blank for your practice.

Address	Class	Network Portion	Host Portion	Default Subnet
63.125.22.14	A	63.	125.22.14	255.0.0.0
199.2.2.10
189.88.25.1
16.12.1.84
145.1.40.2
221.220.21.20

Process For Subnet masking

How many subnets?
2^{(masked bits)} - 2 = Subnets
How many valid hosts per subnet?
2^{(unmasked bits)} - 2 = Hosts
What are the valid subnets?
256-(subnet base)=Base number
What are the valid hosts in the subnets?
All numbers between subnets minus the all 1s (.255) and all 0s (.0) host addresses.
What is broadcast address of the subnet?
All the host bits turned on.

Example of subnet masking

(255.255.255.192) = (11111111.1111111.1111111.11000000)

(2²)-2 = 2 Subnets
(2⁶)-2 = 62 Hosts per subnet
256 - 192 = 64 (.01000000) {For the first subnet}
65 to 126 (.01000001 to .01111110) Valid hosts in the subnets
127 (.01111111) Broadcast

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IP Addressing and Subnet Masking

Identifying the Parts of IP Network Addresses

Process For Subnet masking