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Cisco Hierarchical Model:
For more information about this, please read our separate tutorial titled "The Cisco Hierarchical Model".

OSI Model:
The OSI model is a layered model and a conceptual standard used for defining standards to promote multi-vendor integration as well as maintain constant interfaces and isolate changes of implementation to a single layer. It is NOT application or protocol specific. In order to pass any Cisco exam, you need to know the OSI model inside and out.

The OSI Model consists of 7 layers as follows:

Layer	Description	Device	Protocol
Application	Provides network access for applications, flow control and error recovery. Provides communications services to applications by identifying and establishing the availability of other computers as well as to determine if sufficient resources exist for communication purposes.	Gateway	NCP, SMB, SMTP, FTP, SNMP, Telnet, Appletalk
Presentation	Performs protocol conversion, encryption and data compression	Gateway and redirectors	NCP, AFP, TDI
Session	Allows 2 applications to communicate over a network by opening a session and synchronizing the involved computers. Handles connection establishment, data transfer and connection release	Gateway	NetBios
Transport	Repackages messages into smaller formats, provides error free delivery and error handling functions	Gateway	NetBEUI, TCP, SPX, and NWLink
Network	Handles addressing, translates logical addresses and names to physical addresses, routing and traffic management.	Router and brouter	IP, IPX, NWLink, NetBEUI
**Data Link	Packages raw bits into frames making it transmitable across a network link and includes a cyclical redundancy check(CRC). It consists of the LLC sublayer and the MAC sublayer. The MAC sublayer is important to remember, as it is responsible for appending the MAC address of the next hop to the frame header. On the contrary, LLC sublayer uses Destination Service Access Points and Source Service Access Points to create links for the MAC sublayers.	Switch, bridge and brouter	None
Physical	Physical layer works with the physical media for transmitting and receiving data bits via certain encoding schemes. It also includes specifications for certain mechanical connection features, such as the adaptor connector.	Multiplexer and repeater	None

Here is an easy way to memorize the order of the layers:
All People Seem To Need Data Processing. The first letter of each word corresponds to the first letter of one of the layers. It is a little corny, but it works.

Class	Range	Explanation
A	1-126	IP addresses can be class A, B or C. Class A addresses are for networks with a large number of hosts. The first octet is the netid and the 3 remaining octets are the hostid. Class B addresses are used in medium to large networks with the first 2 octets making up the netid and the remaining 2 are the hostid. A class C is for smaller networks with the first 3 octets making up the netid and the last octet comprising the hostid. The later two classes aren’t used for networks.
B	128-191
C	192-223
D	224-239 (Multicasting)
E	240-255 (Experimental)

A subnet mask blocks out a portion of an IP address and is used to differentiate between the hostid and netid. The default subnet masks are as follows:

Class	Default Subnet	# of Subnets	# of Hosts Per Subnet
Class A	255.0.0.0	126	16,777,214
Class B	255.255.0.0	16,384	65,534
Class C	255.255.255.0	2,097,152	254

In these cases, the part of the IP address blocked out by 255 is the Net ID.

3COM’s IP addressing tutorial is just superior. It covers basic IP addressing options as well as subnetting and VLSM/CIDR.

IPX/SPX:
IPX will also be an important issue to consider in network management given the fact there many companies still use Netware servers. There are two parts to every IPX Network address - the Network ID and the Host ID. The first 8 hex digits represent the network ID, while the remaining hex digits represent the host ID, which is most likely the same as the MAC address, meaning we do not need to manually assign node addresses. Note that valid hexadecimal digits range from 0 through 9, and hexadecimal letters range from A through F. FFFFFFFF in hexadecimal notation = 4292967295 in decimal.

Sequenced Packet Exchange(SPX) belongs to the Transport layer, and is connection-oriented. It creates virtual circuits between hosts, and that each host is given a connection ID in the SPX header for identifying the connection. Service Advertisement Protocol(SAP) is used by NetWare servers to advertise network services via broadcast at an interval of every 60 minutes by default.

Setting Router Passwords

The router has a number of ports that allow access to the router, on each of these ports you can specify passwords to provide a layer of security to the router. There is also the option of disabling login password checking to any of the ports by entering the command to get to the Router(config-line)# section of the port and entering the no login command. In the examples the password is set to ccna with the enable secret password set to ccna2.

Setting the enable and enable secret password:: Router(config)#enable ccna; Router(config)#enable secret ccna2
The enable secret password is the password you use to gain access to enable mode and to the global configuration mode on the router and is encrypted. The enable password is used when you do not specify a enable secret password. The enable password should be different from the enable secret password.
Setting the auxiliary port password:: Router(config)#line aux 0; Router(config-line)#login; Router(config-line)#password ccna
The auxiliary port is on the back of the router and is commonly used to connect a modem to. It is used to allow a remote user access to the configuration of the router. If a modem is connected to the port, it should definitely have a password specified for it.
Setting the console password:: Router(config)#line con 0; Router(config-line)#login; Router(config-line)#password ccna
The console port is also on the back of the router and is used to directly connect a console to the router for configuring the router. The console is usually a PC running a program like HyperTerminal set to 8 N 1. The PC connects to the console port from the PC's COM port, the COM port uses a 9 pin to RJ45 connector, the connector uses a rolled CAT 5 cable (reversed on one end) to connect to the RJ45 port on the back of the router. This port should allow logins with passwords if the router is physically secured. The port should be disabled if it is not regularly used or the router is not securable. This port can be very useful especially when configuring a new router or a corrupted router as you don't have to rely on IP addresses being correct or the interfaces being up.
Setting the Virtual Terminal (Telnet) password:: Router(config)#line vty 0 4; Router(config-line)#login; Router(config-line)#password ccna
The vty ports are specified with the command line vty 0 4 depending on your router you might have more than five (0,1,2,3,4) virtual terminals available, in that case use the command line vty 0 X where X is the number of terminals -1. You can also specify less than the maximum, which will limit the number of sessions that can exist on the router. The Virtual Terminal ports are just that, virtual, as you can't physically see them. They are the ports that allow users to remotely access the router. If they are enabled then anyone on any of the networks that the router knows about can attempt to login. If you aren't going to be doing remote configurations on the router yourself, the vty ports should be disabled and the console port should be enabled. You can also apply a standard IP access list to the VTY ports.

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Setting Router Passwords