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Cisco Hierarchical Model:
For more information about this, please read our separate tutorial titled "The Cisco Hierarchical Model".

OSI Model:
The OSI model is a layered model and a conceptual standard used for defining standards to promote multi-vendor integration as well as maintain constant interfaces and isolate changes of implementation to a single layer. It is NOT application or protocol specific. In order to pass any Cisco exam, you need to know the OSI model inside and out.

The OSI Model consists of 7 layers as follows:

Layer	Description	Device	Protocol
Application	Provides network access for applications, flow control and error recovery. Provides communications services to applications by identifying and establishing the availability of other computers as well as to determine if sufficient resources exist for communication purposes.	Gateway	NCP, SMB, SMTP, FTP, SNMP, Telnet, Appletalk
Presentation	Performs protocol conversion, encryption and data compression	Gateway and redirectors	NCP, AFP, TDI
Session	Allows 2 applications to communicate over a network by opening a session and synchronizing the involved computers. Handles connection establishment, data transfer and connection release	Gateway	NetBios
Transport	Repackages messages into smaller formats, provides error free delivery and error handling functions	Gateway	NetBEUI, TCP, SPX, and NWLink
Network	Handles addressing, translates logical addresses and names to physical addresses, routing and traffic management.	Router and brouter	IP, IPX, NWLink, NetBEUI
**Data Link	Packages raw bits into frames making it transmitable across a network link and includes a cyclical redundancy check(CRC). It consists of the LLC sublayer and the MAC sublayer. The MAC sublayer is important to remember, as it is responsible for appending the MAC address of the next hop to the frame header. On the contrary, LLC sublayer uses Destination Service Access Points and Source Service Access Points to create links for the MAC sublayers.	Switch, bridge and brouter	None
Physical	Physical layer works with the physical media for transmitting and receiving data bits via certain encoding schemes. It also includes specifications for certain mechanical connection features, such as the adaptor connector.	Multiplexer and repeater	None

Here is an easy way to memorize the order of the layers:
All People Seem To Need Data Processing. The first letter of each word corresponds to the first letter of one of the layers. It is a little corny, but it works.

Class	Range	Explanation
A	1-126	IP addresses can be class A, B or C. Class A addresses are for networks with a large number of hosts. The first octet is the netid and the 3 remaining octets are the hostid. Class B addresses are used in medium to large networks with the first 2 octets making up the netid and the remaining 2 are the hostid. A class C is for smaller networks with the first 3 octets making up the netid and the last octet comprising the hostid. The later two classes aren’t used for networks.
B	128-191
C	192-223
D	224-239 (Multicasting)
E	240-255 (Experimental)

A subnet mask blocks out a portion of an IP address and is used to differentiate between the hostid and netid. The default subnet masks are as follows:

Class	Default Subnet	# of Subnets	# of Hosts Per Subnet
Class A	255.0.0.0	126	16,777,214
Class B	255.255.0.0	16,384	65,534
Class C	255.255.255.0	2,097,152	254

In these cases, the part of the IP address blocked out by 255 is the Net ID.

3COM’s IP addressing tutorial is just superior. It covers basic IP addressing options as well as subnetting and VLSM/CIDR.

IPX/SPX:
IPX will also be an important issue to consider in network management given the fact there many companies still use Netware servers. There are two parts to every IPX Network address - the Network ID and the Host ID. The first 8 hex digits represent the network ID, while the remaining hex digits represent the host ID, which is most likely the same as the MAC address, meaning we do not need to manually assign node addresses. Note that valid hexadecimal digits range from 0 through 9, and hexadecimal letters range from A through F. FFFFFFFF in hexadecimal notation = 4292967295 in decimal.

Sequenced Packet Exchange(SPX) belongs to the Transport layer, and is connection-oriented. It creates virtual circuits between hosts, and that each host is given a connection ID in the SPX header for identifying the connection. Service Advertisement Protocol(SAP) is used by NetWare servers to advertise network services via broadcast at an interval of every 60 minutes by default.

Routers and Switches

Routers

A Cisco 2501 router.

A Cisco 2514 router.

Cisco 2500 routers come with Flash EPROM technology for simplified software maintenance. These systems support a variety of Cisco IOS software feature sets, so you can choose a feature set that supports your specific protocol environment. The software feature sets range from an IP and bridging-only to the full array of Cisco`s software functionality, including APPN and RMON.

Mission-specific models contain less memory and less hardware functionality to support a subset of protocols. Each mission-specific model can be upgraded to full router capability by downloading a new Cisco IOS software feature set and, if necessary, adding memory.

Cisco 2500 series models can be divided into the following categories:

Single LAN routers-Models 2501, 2502, 2503, 2504, 2520, 2521, 2522 and 2523
Mission-specific, entry-level routers-Models 2501CF, 2501LF, 2502CF, 2502LF, 2503I, 2504I, 2520CF, 2520LF, 2521CF, 2521LF, 2522CF, 2522LF, 2523CF and 2523LF
Router/hub combinations-Models 2505, 2507 and 2516
Access servers-Models 2509 to 2512 (refer to the "Cisco 2500 Series Access Servers" section in the "Access Servers" chapter later in the catalog)
Dual LAN routers-Models 2513, 2514 and 2515
Modular routers-Models 2524 and 2525 (optional integrated DSU/CSU or NT-1)

A Cisco 7505 router.

The Cisco 7500 series includes the following routers: Cisco 7505, Cisco 7507, Cisco 7513, and Cisco 7576. The Cisco 7500 series routers support multiprotocol, multimedia routing and bridging with a wide variety of protocols and any combination of Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), Basic Rate Interface (BRI), channel attachment, channelized E1, T1, and T3, Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), High-Speed Serial Interface (HSSI), multichannel, Primary Rate Interface (PRI), Packet over OC-3, synchronous serial, and Token Ring media.

Switches

A Cisco Catalyst 1900 switch.

The Catalyst 1900 switches provide up to 24 10-Mbps switched Ethernet connections to 10BaseT-compatible devices (such as single workstations and 10BaseT hubs) and one 10-Mbps connection to an AUI. The switches also provide two 100BaseT connections to servers and backbones.

A Cisco Catalyst 2820 switch.

The Catalyst 2820 series Ethernet switches provide 25 10-Mbps switched Ethernet connections: 24 10-Mbps connections to 10BaseT-compatible devices (such as single workstations and 10BaseT hubs) and one 10-Mbps connection to an AUI. Switches with the optional Catalyst 2820 modules installed can provide 100BaseT, FDDI, and ATM connectivity to servers and backbones.

A Cisco Catalyst 5500 switch.

The Catalyst 5500 switch provides high-density switched Ethernet and Fast Ethernet, Token Ring, and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) switching for both wiring closet and data-center applications, using unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) multimode and single-mode fiber-optic cable. The Catalyst 5500 switch supports switched 10-Mbps Ethernet, Ethernet repeater connections, and switched 100-Mbps Fast Ethernet with backbone connections to Fast Ethernet, ATM, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), and Copper Distributed Data Interface (CDDI). Typically, Catalyst 5500 Ethernet interfaces connect workstations and repeaters while the Fast Ethernet interfaces connect to workstations, servers, switches, and routers.

System Description

The Catalyst 5500 switch chassis has 13 slots. Slot 1, which is dedicated for the supervisor engine II module, provides switching, local and remote management, and dual Fast Ethernet interfaces. Slot 2 contains an additional redundant supervisor engine II as a backup in case the first module fails. A failure of the active supervisor engine II is detected by the standby module which takes control of the supervisor engine II switching functions.

The remaining slots are available for any combination of Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, FDDI/CDDI, and ATM. If a redundant supervisor engine II is not required, slot 2 is available for any module. The Catalyst 5500 accepts LightStream 1010 ATM modules in chassis slots 9 through 13. Slot 13 is a dedicated slot, which accepts only the ATM Switch Processor (ASP) module.

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Routers and Switches

Routers

Switches