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Cisco Hierarchical Model:
For more information about this, please read our separate tutorial titled "The Cisco Hierarchical Model".

OSI Model:
The OSI model is a layered model and a conceptual standard used for defining standards to promote multi-vendor integration as well as maintain constant interfaces and isolate changes of implementation to a single layer. It is NOT application or protocol specific. In order to pass any Cisco exam, you need to know the OSI model inside and out.

The OSI Model consists of 7 layers as follows:

Layer	Description	Device	Protocol
Application	Provides network access for applications, flow control and error recovery. Provides communications services to applications by identifying and establishing the availability of other computers as well as to determine if sufficient resources exist for communication purposes.	Gateway	NCP, SMB, SMTP, FTP, SNMP, Telnet, Appletalk
Presentation	Performs protocol conversion, encryption and data compression	Gateway and redirectors	NCP, AFP, TDI
Session	Allows 2 applications to communicate over a network by opening a session and synchronizing the involved computers. Handles connection establishment, data transfer and connection release	Gateway	NetBios
Transport	Repackages messages into smaller formats, provides error free delivery and error handling functions	Gateway	NetBEUI, TCP, SPX, and NWLink
Network	Handles addressing, translates logical addresses and names to physical addresses, routing and traffic management.	Router and brouter	IP, IPX, NWLink, NetBEUI
**Data Link	Packages raw bits into frames making it transmitable across a network link and includes a cyclical redundancy check(CRC). It consists of the LLC sublayer and the MAC sublayer. The MAC sublayer is important to remember, as it is responsible for appending the MAC address of the next hop to the frame header. On the contrary, LLC sublayer uses Destination Service Access Points and Source Service Access Points to create links for the MAC sublayers.	Switch, bridge and brouter	None
Physical	Physical layer works with the physical media for transmitting and receiving data bits via certain encoding schemes. It also includes specifications for certain mechanical connection features, such as the adaptor connector.	Multiplexer and repeater	None

Here is an easy way to memorize the order of the layers:
All People Seem To Need Data Processing. The first letter of each word corresponds to the first letter of one of the layers. It is a little corny, but it works.

Class	Range	Explanation
A	1-126	IP addresses can be class A, B or C. Class A addresses are for networks with a large number of hosts. The first octet is the netid and the 3 remaining octets are the hostid. Class B addresses are used in medium to large networks with the first 2 octets making up the netid and the remaining 2 are the hostid. A class C is for smaller networks with the first 3 octets making up the netid and the last octet comprising the hostid. The later two classes aren’t used for networks.
B	128-191
C	192-223
D	224-239 (Multicasting)
E	240-255 (Experimental)

A subnet mask blocks out a portion of an IP address and is used to differentiate between the hostid and netid. The default subnet masks are as follows:

Class	Default Subnet	# of Subnets	# of Hosts Per Subnet
Class A	255.0.0.0	126	16,777,214
Class B	255.255.0.0	16,384	65,534
Class C	255.255.255.0	2,097,152	254

In these cases, the part of the IP address blocked out by 255 is the Net ID.

3COM’s IP addressing tutorial is just superior. It covers basic IP addressing options as well as subnetting and VLSM/CIDR.

IPX/SPX:
IPX will also be an important issue to consider in network management given the fact there many companies still use Netware servers. There are two parts to every IPX Network address - the Network ID and the Host ID. The first 8 hex digits represent the network ID, while the remaining hex digits represent the host ID, which is most likely the same as the MAC address, meaning we do not need to manually assign node addresses. Note that valid hexadecimal digits range from 0 through 9, and hexadecimal letters range from A through F. FFFFFFFF in hexadecimal notation = 4292967295 in decimal.

Sequenced Packet Exchange(SPX) belongs to the Transport layer, and is connection-oriented. It creates virtual circuits between hosts, and that each host is given a connection ID in the SPX header for identifying the connection. Service Advertisement Protocol(SAP) is used by NetWare servers to advertise network services via broadcast at an interval of every 60 minutes by default.

Host-to-Host Layer

This layer shields the upper layers from the process of sending data. Also provides an end-to-end connection between two devices during communication by performing sequencing, acknowledgments, checksums, and flow control. Applications using services at this layer can use two different protocols: TCP and UDP.

Protocols at the Host-to-Host Layer are:

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

TCP provides a connection-oriented, reliable services to the applications that use its services.
Main Functions of TCP

Segments application layer data stream--: TCP accepts data from applications and segments it into a desirable size for transmission between itself and the remote devices. The segment size is determined while TCP is negotiating the connection between the two devices. Either device can dictate the segment size.
Provides acknowledgment times--: TCP maintains timers to identify when packets have taken too long to get to their destination. When an acknowledgment is not received for a packet and the timer expires, TCP will resend the packet to the destination.
Enables sequence number checking--: TCP/IP uses sequence numbers to ensure that all packets sent by an application on one device are read in the correct order by an application on another device. The packets might not be received at the transport layer in the correct order, but TCP sequences them in their original order before passing them to the application layer.
Provides buffer management--: Any time two devices are communicating, the possibility exists that one device can send data faster than the other can accept it. If this happens, the receiving device puts the extra packets into a buffer to be read at the first chance it gets. When this data overflow persists, however, the buffer is eventually filled and packets begin to drop. TCP performs some preventive maintenance called flow control to avoid the problem.
Initiates connections with 3-way handshake--: TCP uses the concept of the three-way handshake to initiate a connection between two devices. A TCP connection begins with a device sending a request to synchronize sequence numbers (a SYN packet) and initiate a connection. The other device receives the message and responds with a SYN message and the sequence number increased by one. The first device responds by sending an acknowledgment message (an ACK) to the second device, indicating that the device received the sequence number it expected.
Performs error and duplication checking--: TCP uses a checksum to identify packets that have changed during transport. If a device receives a packet with a bad checksum, it drops the packet and does not send an acknowledgment for the packet. So the sending device will resend the packet. Any time TCP receives a duplicate packet it will drop the duplicate.
Performs acknowledgment windowing--: Any time a TCP device sends data to another device, it must wait for the acknowledgment that this data was received, To increase the bandwidth utilization, TCP can change the window size. Whatever the window size is negotiated to be, acknowledgments will only be sent after that many packets have been received at the receiving device. TCP sets the window size dynamically during a connection, allowing either device involved in the communication to slow down the sending data rate based on the other devices capacity. This process is known as sliding window because of TCP's ability to change the window size dynamically.

TCP Overview

Before data is sent, the transmitting host contacts the receiving host to set up a connection known as a virtual circuit. This makes TCP connection-oriented. During the handshake the two hosts agree upon the amount of information to be sent before an acknowledgment is needed (Windowing). TCP takes the large blocks of data from the upper layers and breaks them up into segments that it numbers and sequences. TCP will the pass the segments to the network layer, which will route them through the Internetwork. The receiving TCP can put the segments back into order. After packets are sent, TCP waits for an acknowledgment from the receiving end of the virtual circuit. If no acknowledgment is received then the sending host will retransmit the segment.

TCP Header Information
Source Port Number 16 bits (Number of calling port)			Destination Port Number 16 bits (Number of called port)
Sequence Number 32 bits (Number to ensure proper sequence of data.)
Acknowledgment Number 32-bits (Identifies next segment expected)
Header Length 4 bits (Number of 32 bit words in header)	Reserved 6 bits (Always 0)	Code bits 6 bits (Identifies type of segment, setup/termination of session)	Window size 16 bits (Number of octets the device is willing to accept)
TCP Checksum 16 bits (Used to ensure data integrity)			Urgent Pointer 16 bits (Indicates end of urgent data)
Options 0 or 32 bits (Identifies maximum segment size)
Data

UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

UDP transports information that doesn't require reliable delivery; therefore it can have less overhead than TCP as no sequencing or acknowledgments are used. NFS and SNMP use UDP for their sessions, the applications have their own methods to ensure reliability. UDP receives blocks of information from the upper layers, which it breaks into segments. It gives each segment a number, sends it, and then forgets about it. No acknowledgments, no virtual circuits, connectionless protocol.

UDP Header Format
Source Port Number 16 bits (Number of calling port)	Destination Port Number 16 bits (Number of called port)
UDP Length 16 bits (Length of UDP in bytes)	UDP Checksum 16 bits (Used to ensure data integrity)
Data

Differences between TCP and UDP

TCP	UDP
Differences Between TCP and UDP
Sequenced	Unsequenced
Reliable -sequence numbers, acknowledgments, and 3-way handshake	Unreliable -best effort only
Connection Oriented	Connectionless
Virtual Circuits	Low Overhead
Checksum for Error Checking	Checksum for Error Checking
Uses buffer management to avoid overflow, uses sliding window to maximize bandwidth efficiency	No flow control
Assigns datagram size dynamically for efficiency	Every datagram segment is the same size

TCP and UDP Port Numbers

TCP and UDP use port numbers to communicate with the upper layers. Port numbers keep track of different sessions across the network. The source port will be above 1024 (unprivileged). 1023 and below (privileged) are known as well known ports and are assigned to common protocols. TCP and upper layer don't use hardware (MAC) and logical (IP) addresses to see the host's address; instead they use port numbers.

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TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

Differences between TCP and UDP